Radioactive Materials: How Ukraine Maintains Safety During the War
The management of radioactive materials is a comprehensive system that combines legislative regulation, coordinated operation of specialized enterprises, implementation of up-to-date technologies, and development of international partnership.
The war in Ukraine has subjected this system to unprecedented challenges: from occupation of strategic facilities to the risk of nuclear terrorism. However, despite all these threats, experts and state services continue their work, quickly adapting the infrastructure and rules to new realities, strengthening the protection of facilities and maintaining continuous communication with international partners.
More about this is in the interview with Oleksandr Soloviov, expert from the Decommissioning Department of State Scientific and Technical Center for Nuclear and Radiation Safety (SSTC NRS).
– Could you please clarify what radioactive materials are?
A material is considered radioactive if it contains radioactive substances. Such materials include radiation sources, spent fuel and radioactive waste.
In turn, radiation source is a physical object (not a nuclear installation) that contains a radioactive substance, or technical device that generates, or under certain conditions can generate radiation.
Spent nuclear fuel is generated during energy production in nuclear reactors. Nuclear fuel lifetime in reactors is determined by the allowable burnup of fissile isotopes. Once the planned burnup is reached, fuel is unloaded from the reactor and considered spent, as it can no longer be used directly for energy production.
Radioactive waste refers to material objects and substances whose radionuclide activity or radioactive contamination exceeds the limits established by standards and which will no longer be used in production or other processes. Radioactive waste also includes disused sealed radiation sources after the respective information has been entered into the State Register of Radioactive Waste.
– How does the radioactive material management system work in Ukraine?
To ensure the safe management of radioactive materials, Ukraine has implemented relevant laws and regulations that define the rights, duties and responsibilities of all process participants.
On one hand, the key responsible authorities at the state level are as follows:
- Ministry of Energy of Ukraine (MinEnergo) develops state policy in the field of nuclear energy and radiation safety and approves the relevant programs.
- State Nuclear Regulatory Inspectorate of Ukraine (SNRIU) establishes radiation standards, approves licensing conditions, conducts authorizing procedures, state oversight, inspections, and control over compliance with safety requirements.
- State Agency of Ukraine for Exclusion Zone Management (SAUEZM) implements state policy in managing the exclusion zone and zone of unconditional resettlement, as well as oversees the management of radioactive materials within these zones.
- Ministry of Health (MOH) establishes health and safety standards and controls their meeting for personnel and the public.
On the other hand, the policy is implemented by operating enterprises, which act in accordance with the established standards:
- Energoatom is responsible for the operation of nuclear reactors, during which the largest amount of radioactive waste is generated.
- Central Enterprise for Radioactive Waste Management (CERWM) subordinated to the SAUEZM provides acceptance, long-term storage, immobilization, and disposal of radioactive waste.
- State Specialized Enterprise “Chornobyl NPP” (ChNPP) implements gradual decommissioning of power units and transforms the Shelter into an environmentally safe system.
- Radon Association collects and stores non-nuclear radioactive waste throughout Ukraine.
Thus, the radioactive material management system in Ukraine is structured on two main levels: the state provides regulation and oversight, while the operators implement the policy in accordance with the established standards.
– After the lifetime of radiation sources expires, how is their retrieval, storage, or disposal arranged in Ukraine? What exactly happens to radiation sources at different stages after they are decommissioned?
Radiation sources whose lifetime has expired and for which further use is not planned are identified during the annual inventory at the enterprises.
Subsequently, three scenarios for the management of radiation sources are envisaged.
The first scenario is reuse after lifetime extension in accordance with the established procedure.
The second scenario is return of disused radiation sources to the supplier in compliance with the agreement. For imported radiation sources, this involves returning them to the manufacturer in the country of origin.
The third scenario is conversion of radiation sources to the radioactive waste category and transfer to the specialized radioactive waste management enterprise for storage or disposal.
As stipulated by the concluded agreements, radiation sources whose lifetime has expired and for which further use is not planned should either be returned to the radiation source supplier or within the period specified in the license for radiation source management (usually six months), they should be placed for safe storage, converted to the radioactive waste category and transferred to the specialized radioactive waste management enterprise in accordance with the selected scenario for their further management.
The majority of disused radiation sources in Ukraine (reclassified as radioactive waste) is sent to the Radon Association for temporary storage. They (radiation sources) are placed there in special containers for storage at the relevant radwaste storage facilities with the intention of subsequent transfer to the Centralized Long-Term Storage Facility for Disused Radiation Sources (CLTSF) located at the Vector site in the Chornobyl exclusion zone. The CLTSF is currently undergoing hot tests.
The technological process for the management of disused radiation sources at the CLTSF involves their acceptance, processing and long-term storage for a period of 50 years. Upon completion of this period, the design envisages the transfer of disused radiation sources for disposal to the relevant radioactive waste disposal facilities depending on their characteristics.
Radioactive waste in the form of disused sealed radiation sources, depending on their characteristics, may be disposed of in different types of disposal facilities.
According to the Radioactive Waste Management Strategy of Ukraine, intermediate- and high-level, including long-lived radioactive waste in the form of disused radiation sources is subject to disposal in geological repositories for radioactive waste. The Radioactive Waste Management Strategy of Ukraine provides for the construction of a geological repository (an intermediate-depth repository and deep geological repository).
– What is the structure of radioactive waste management in Ukraine?
The main goal of the radioactive waste management system in Ukraine is to protect personnel, the public and the environment against negative radiation impact.
This system is complex and multi-level, encompassing legislative, administrative, technical, engineering, and environmental components. It is based on standards of national legislation, Ukraine’s international commitments, as well as practical experience, particularly gained during the mitigation of the ChNPP accident consequences and long-term operation of nuclear energy facilities.
The key safety principles in radioactive waste management involve minimization of radioactive waste; commitment to ensuring safety; implementation of the defense-in-depth strategy; consideration of the human factor; incorporation of experience in radioactive waste management, etc.
Radioactive waste is currently generated in Ukraine as a result of various activities, such as:
- NPP operation;
- management of radiation sources in medicine, industry and at scientific institutions (research activities);
- activities in the Chornobyl exclusion zone and at facilities related to the mitigation of Chornobyl disaster consequences;
- decommissioning of Chornobyl NPP Units 1–3 and transformation of the Shelter into an environmentally safe system.
Radioactive waste management includes the following stages: preliminary treatment, processing, long-term storage, and disposal. At each stage of the technological process of radioactive waste management until its final disposal, temporary storage and transport are carried out as needed.
The main entities responsible for radioactive waste management in Ukraine are the following:
- Energoatom – operator of existing NPPs, responsible for initial management of radioactive waste directly at the sites of generation, including processing and storage;
- Radon Association – specialized enterprise implementing the management of radioactive waste resulting from the use of radiation sources in medicine, science and industry, including disused radiation sources transferred to the radioactive waste category. The enterprise provides acceptance, processing and temporary storage of such waste at five specialized sites;
- CERWM – operator of radioactive waste storage/disposal facilities, responsible for processing, long-term storage and disposal of waste at the sites in the Chornobyl exclusion zone;
- ChNPP – operator of the ChNPP nuclear installations at the stage of their decommissioning and mitigation of ChNPP accident consequences. The enterprise also operates radwaste management facilities, including treatment facilities and temporary storage facilities.
The Ukrainian radioactive waste management system provides specific infrastructure for each stage, including for storage and disposal. This infrastructure corresponds to the waste activity level and ensures the necessary duration of safe retention and isolation.
At operating NPPs, the operator ensures, among other things, collection and retrieval of so-called legacy radwaste stored in the compartments of temporary storage facilities for solid radioactive waste.
Then, waste undergoes sorting and preliminary processing. For solid radwaste, this may include fragmentation and decontamination and for liquid radwaste – centrifugation or evaporation.
The next stage is processing: solid waste is incinerated, compacted, or cemented, while liquid waste undergoes deep evaporation.
After processing, radwaste is conditioned and placed for temporary storage directly at the NPP site. For this purpose, engineered facilities are used that are designed for safe retention of waste until it is transferred to centralized facilities for long-term storage or final disposal.
As a result, the NPP operator accepts radwaste packages — containers with waste, which are potentially suitable for transfer to specialized facilities of the relevant type for disposal.
– How is radwaste managed in the Chornobyl exclusion zone?
The radwaste management system at the ChNPP covers the full cycle of operations and is based on the activities of two specialized facilities: liquid radioactive waste treatment plant (LRTP) and Industrial Complex for Solid Radioactive Waste Management (ICSRM).
At the LRTP, liquid waste resulting from decontamination activities and stored on the NPP site undergoes cementation. After this, it is packaged into containers for further disposal.
The ICSRM, in turn, implements retrieval, sorting, fragmentation, decontamination, incineration, compaction, and packaging of solid waste, including legacy radwaste from degraded containers.
Both facilities have valid licenses for operation, function in a routine mode and play a key role in the processing of radioactive waste resulting from ChNPP decommissioning and Shelter stabilization.
Specialized storage facilities located in the Chornobyl exclusion zone play a special role in the Ukrainian radioactive waste management system. These facilities are designed to accept large amounts of legacy and emergency waste, particularly those resulting from the Chornobyl accident. Their infrastructure ensures long-term storage of materials with increased activity levels in the monitored environment with restricted access and multi-level environmental protection.
The final stage of radioactive waste management (in a stable solid form) is final disposal. In Ukraine, this function is performed by the CERWM at the Vector located in the exclusion zone. The Vector site plays a key role in the Ukrainian radioactive waste management system: it accepts conditioned radwaste from the ChNPP, Radon Association and operating NPPs, stores it, as well as disposes in engineered near-surface and surface disposal facilities.
As of 2025, a number of radioactive waste disposal and storage facilities are operated in Ukraine. Among them, the Vector infrastructure is of key importance. It includes the engineered near-surface disposal facility for solid radioactive waste (ENSDF), centralized long-term storage facility for disused radiation sources (CLTSF), as well as operating radwaste disposal sites in the Chornobyl exclusion zone, including the trench-type Buryakivka RWDS.
In the near future, it is expected in Ukraine to commission near-surface disposal facilities for solid radioactive waste SRW-1 and SRW-2, which are at the final stages of licensing and safety assessment. In addition, the construction of new facilities is planned for very low-level waste, solid radwaste from NPPs, as well as a geological repository for long-lived, intermediate- and high-level radwaste. The implementation of these projects will significantly expand the national infrastructure and establish an integral system for radwaste final disposal in Ukraine.
Control and licensing of all activities in radioactive waste management are implemented by the SNRIU, which is responsible for compliance with nuclear and radiation safety standards and rules.
Thus, a comprehensive radioactive waste management system has been established in Ukraine, which, despite its effectiveness, requires modernization. Its further development covers not only technical upgrades but also implementing advanced technologies.
– What challenges have both the regulator and enterprises for radioactive material management faced after russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine?
After russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, the radwaste management system faced a number of unprecedented challenges that significantly complicated the performance of its key functions: collection, processing, storage, transport, and disposal of radioactive waste.
Both the state regulatory system and enterprises implementing radioactive waste management, in particular, ChNPP, Radon Association and Energoatom are currently forced to work under direct threats to the security of facilities, personnel and infrastructure. Considering the geography of hostilities, specific features of facilities and the volume of accumulated radwaste, the issue involves not only technical difficulties, but also the potential threat of a nuclear incident and environmental disaster.
One of the most serious challenges was the seizure of the Zaporizhzhia NPP, which is still under prolonged military occupation. This has led to the loss of operational control over the facility, creation of constant threats to security and the risk of potential acts of nuclear terrorism.
The temporary occupation of the Chornobyl exclusion zone and consequently the loss of control over radioactive waste management facilities within the zone, in particular, ChNPP and its infrastructure, as well as CERWM facilities, caused a number of serious risks. They include potential threats to the protective barriers of the facilities, loss of documentation and the risk of unauthorized access to infrastructure facilities.
This situation violated several key principles of nuclear and radiation safety defined in IAEA documents, such as ensuring the integrity of physical protection systems, stable power supply, continuous presence of licensed personnel, and implementing effective state oversight.
Continuous psychological and physical pressure on personnel of the facilities was a critical consequence of the occupation. Such pressure posed an additional risk of human error and incompliance with operational safety limits and conditions.
The probability of nuclear terrorism, in particular the theft or loss of control over radioactive materials, has become an equally serious threat. Cases of looting and unauthorized access to storage facilities for radioactive waste and radiation sources were recorded in the exclusion zone. This created the risk of their use for malicious or terrorist purposes, which necessitated the strengthening of physical protection for facilities throughout the country.
In addition to direct threats to major facilities, the war has also caused significant damage to the infrastructure of enterprises implementing radwaste management in regions (Radon interregional plants). In several regions, logistics routes were blocked, making it impossible to transport radwaste to centralized storage facilities or to condition it properly.
The SNRIU also faced serious challenges related to the need to improve the regulatory framework and procedural mechanisms. Under the loss of access to certain sites, relocation of materials, changes in personnel, and limitations on inspections, licensing procedures required immediate revision. Some permits were temporarily suspended, while others were extended according to special procedures. At the same time, regulatory approaches were adapted to meet the requirements of wartime conditions.
Additionally, there were difficulties in the coordination of actions between various entities due to communication disruptions, lack of up-to-date information, server damage, and the loss of access to the main monitoring, accounting, reporting, and safety systems.
Despite all these challenges, by April–May 2022, Ukraine had gradually restored state control over facilities in the exclusion zone. The SNRIU promptly conducted comprehensive inspections, while enterprises assessed the damage, stabilized infrastructure, and prepared for the resumption of full-scale operations.
All these circumstances had a significant impact on the stability of the radioactive material management system. At the same time, they prompted reassessment and adaptation of the system to the realities of wartime. Despite ongoing challenges and threats, the system continues operation, demonstrates stability, flexibility and the ability to function effectively even under the conditions of armed conflict.
– In February 2025, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine took the Law of Ukraine “On the National Targeted Environmental Program for Radioactive Waste Management” as a basis. It was developed for an eight-year period — from 2025 to 2032. What changes in the area of radwaste management are envisaged according to this strategy?
The main difference is that the new program is no longer just a framework document but a clear strategy with specific stages, timelines, and implementation mechanisms. Whereas the primary focus previously was on ensuring general radiation safety, the emphasis now is on creating an effective, integrated radioactive waste management system that minimizes the impact on the public and the environment in the context of current challenges.
The infrastructure component of the system was significantly updated: the construction of new facilities, such as facilities at the Vector site, facilities at NPPs, and the development of decentralized capacities are planned.
One of the key innovations is that specific deadlines were set for the first time for the construction of a geological repository: the National Action Plan should be approved by 2028, repository concept should be approved and siting should be completed by 2031. This means a transition from declarations to actual planning, but so far, these steps remain only on paper.
However, it is necessary to note that the exclusion zone is being considered one of the potential sites for the geological repository, with some geophysical studies already carried out there. At the same time, under current wartime conditions, access to this territory is restricted, and its infrastructure remains potentially vulnerable.
A separate challenge is personnel shortage: engineers, geologists and radiochemists are often involved in other activities and cannot fully participate in studies. In addition, some enterprises in this area have already suffered russian attacks, which poses additional risks for the implementation of long-term projects, which, in my opinion, should be taken into account.
At the same time, Ukraine traditionally relies on international support in this sphere. In particular, consultations were provided by experts from countries with advanced radioactive waste management systems. This, in turn, significantly contributes to the implementation of up-to-date approaches to planning geological disposal. However, even in peacetime conditions, the construction of such a repository is a complex and lengthy process that may take 40–50 years.
At the same time, the innovations include the development of databases and modernization of systems in radwaste accounting. In addition, for the first time, the new program introduces a methodology for assessing the effectiveness of its implementation. This approach is not presented in the previous version.
Another important aspect is funding. Instead of the previous general statements, the program now provides over 20 billion hryvnias with a detailed breakdown by sources: the state budget, Radioactive Waste Management Fund, costs of enterprises, and international assistance.
Finally, whereas international cooperation was previously mentioned more declaratively, the new program envisages active involvement of international partners in the implementation of measures. In other words, the new program is no longer just a strategy but a management tool with a clear logic and controllable results.
– Could you tell more about the role of international cooperation in radioactive waste management?
International cooperation plays a key role in radioactive waste management, particularly for countries seeking to increase safety, efficiency, and public trust in these processes. For Ukraine, it is not only a source of financial support but also a tool for introducing best practices.
International cooperation in radwaste management in Ukraine covers several key areas. One of the most important is financing and implementing critically important projects, such as the New Safe Confinement, construction of radwaste storage/disposal facilities or improvement of the waste management infrastructure, in particular, under the assistance of the Joint Support Office (JSO) and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD).
In addition, international cooperation contributes to the development of the regulatory framework, which is formed taking into account the best international practices and recommendations of the IAEA, Euratom and other specialized organizations. This allows the Ukrainian radioactive waste management system to comply with European and global standards.
Scientific and technical cooperation plays a special role, including the introduction of innovative technologies, approaches to assessing long-term safety and decontamination. Another important form of international cooperation is also experience exchange under joint projects covering a wide range of issues: from radwaste inventory to the development of concepts for its long-term disposal.
Thus, international cooperation allows Ukraine to confidently advance toward harmonizing its radwaste management system with the best global standards, significantly enhancing the level of nuclear and radiation safety in the country.
Uatom.org Editorial Board